Physiological Ecology Essay Example for Free

Physiological Ecology Essay ABSTRACT   Ã‚   Mytilus edulis or the common mussels, very commonly found around the British Isles coast, with large commercial beds in the Wash, Morecambe Bay, Conway bay the estuaries of south- west England, north Wales west Scotland; belongs to the phylum Mollusca e.g. snails, slugs, mussels cockles clams class Pelecypoda e.g. clams, cockles, mussels, oysters scallops. The Mytilus is an extremely widely studies specie, mainly because of its widespread distribution, abundance, ecological commercial importance. It is also used as a bio – indicator. The objective of the study conducted was to find out the effects of respiration, water pumping activity environmental stresses on the mussel’s growth. The environmental stress includes prolonged air exposure, low salinity its action combined with elevated temperature. The main focus was regarding the age growth of the Mytilus. The mussels were challenged to a number of tests to determine their behaviour to record their response to different environments.   The tests prove that Mytilus species that live in an uncontaminated area grow faster than ones that live in polluted areas. This can be deduced effectively by the research conducted along with the experiments. INTRODUCTION   Ã‚   Mytilus are usually present on the rocky shores of open coasts attached to the rock surfaces in crevices, on rocks piers in sheltered harbours estuaries, often occurring as dense masses in cooler waters of the world; usually extending from the Arctic to the Mediterranean in the North east Atlantic. Two important factors that play an important part in the growth life of Mytilus are: TEMPERATURE: it is a vital factor responsible for the growth limitation of mussels. Extreme low temperature causes damage in Mytilus but is minimised due to nucleating agents in the haemo- lymph. The Mytilus is prone to perilous freezing conditions sporadically in even moderate temperatures; large adults can endure lab conditions of -16 degree C. easily for 24 hours are capable of surviving even if the tissue temperature falls below -10 degree C. In Sweden, mussels actively ingested seston at -10 degree C., suggesting that they can utilise spring phytoplankton blooms in boreal waters even at low temperatures. M.edulis can tolerate high temperature desiccation as well, for example the British M.edulis has an upper sustained thermal tolerance limit of about 29 degree C. (Mytilus edulis) SALINITY: in contrast with other biogenic reef species, M.edulis can bear a wide range of salinity. But it is noted that it stops the feeding process when exposed to low salinities. The M. edulis adapts well to low salinities as low as 4-5 %. Exposure to 16% salinity for a month resulted in reduced shell growth as much as 26% to 32%, while in 22% exposure caused a minute drop in growth rate. When exposed to 13% the growth rate recovered from zero to more than 80% in 32% in a month. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials: Incubation tubes, incubator, cotton, knob, benzoic acid, All samples were divided into four groups. Two groups of prestine A and prestine B were compared with polluted A and polluted B. Pristine A Pristine B Polluted A Polluted B Curves were drawn to compare Pristine A with Polluted A and Pristine B with Polluted B. With change of temperature change in mass was observed. Mytilus were cultured in flat trays measuring 20-40 cm. Two trays had pristine while remaining two were for polluted growth. Affect of temperature change was observed in all the four trays with consequently change in mass. Mytilus was put over the trays to be cultured. Tests conducted in five different labs are being analyzed to prove that the Mytilus favor a pristine environment as compared to a polluted one. LAB #1    This particular lab deals with the energy content in a food substrate or in animal tissue which is considered as the most important component for growth of any organism. The method used to determine the energy content of biological materials is the micro- bomb calorimetry method; by using susceptible microelectrodes to assess the heat produced by igniting a pellet of dry tissue within a stainless steel bomb. The calibration is obtained through a chemical having fixed energy content; the temperature change can be transformed into energy content for the tissue. In order to deal with a small sample, a micro- bomb calorimeter is used, filled with oxygen a small wire, that works like a light bulb filament is used to ignite the tissue    Using the oxygen supplied by potassium dichromate; a strong oxidizing reagent, contained with concentrated sulfuric acid, the tissue is burnt chemically. The orange Cr is reduced to green Cr, while burning; this change can be quantified using a spectrophotometer. LAB #5:    By determining the effects of geometric constraints biological processes, the allometric isometric relationships of organism are studied. The lab deals with the examination of gill area, shell volume foot weight scale with the size of mussels; observing how the size of the mussel effects the different biological processes. The allometric scaling is explained by equations of the form Y= Ax B; the A as a constant, B an exponent, X is mass Y is a biological process. Allometric relationships are represented as curves on linear axes, but when plotted on log/log axes they become straight. The scaling exponent of the function is determined by the slope of the line. LAB #6:    This lab’s research aims to calculate the following at ambient temperature using a meticulous mode: The respiration rate of one mussel from polluted area The respiration rate of one mussel from a pristine area control respiration    The materials employed in this test are a fiber optic oxygen electrode indicating vestiges on the quenching of light emissions from a Ruthenium compound due to oxygen presence, so as to calculate the flux of oxygen in due course.   To measure the respiration rates, the mussels will be enclosed in individual restrained Respirometers, filled with seawater connected to an oxygen electrode located with a slow flow of water from a peristaltic pump, in a separate chamber. Set up the oxygen system to record data every minute for an hour. Place a cleaned mussel, attach the lid submerge the chamber. Place the electrode in the holder attach hoses to pump chamber, so that the water is flowing past them, turning on the pump to slow. The data logging will go on for an hour start a mark for a downward slop in the recorded readings. Measure the volume of chambers the water level in hoses length of the mussel to estimate the tissue weight Mussel volume to ascertain the exact volume of water in the chamber.   LAB # 7:   Ã‚   The labs main concern was to calculate the protein content in mussel tissues, by using the Lowry chemical assay, which comprises of combining a dye reagent with soluble protein to produce coloration that is directly proportional to the amount of protein present. Protein is often used in physiological ecology as it plays a functional structural role by normalizing the data, through its direct association with functional components within the cells. Often in this experiment, the Bradford assay has been used since it is an alternate method for protein determination. Dilute copper tartar- ate solution is added to the protein that forms a complex. To develop the coloration, the Folin reagent is added to the protein – copper complex, within 15 minutes it results in a blue color. This has a peak absorbance at 750nm can be quantified at this wavelength using a spectrophotometer. A calibration must be done with a known construction of known concentration of protein a calibrated line constructed.   Ã‚   The reagents in the assay when reacted with a series of known protein solution (0.2- 1.5 mg/ml) dissolved in a sodium oxide buffer to remove buffer effects in the calibration. Prepare a series of clean 2ml snap cap tubes. The likely concentration series will be made by diluting the stock Bovine Serum Albumin from concentrations stock: –x x/10 x/2 x/4 3x/4   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Into the 1.7 ml soap cal tubes, transfer 25ul of the standards then add 125ul of reagent A. swirl warily. In each tube add 1.0 ml of reagent B vortex carefully. Leave for 15 minutes then measure the absorbance against 750nm distilled water. Plot the protein content along the X axis the absorption along the Y axis to obtain the calibration line. The calculation of the calibrated line can be done to estimate the protein content X from an unknown absorption Y; in the form Y= A – BX LAB # 9:   Ã‚  Ã‚   This lab research is to study the functional attributes of living enzymes, employing a quantitative approach to their measurement. By using a simple spectrophotometric assay to quantify the enzyme citrate synthase in two populations of Mytilus, any possible consequences of this variation will be identified by its functional value. The enzyme Citrate Synthase limits the rate mediating the transfer of pyruvate into the TCA cycle as citric acid. The process determines: Quantification of CS activity Quantification of the protein content to allow the CS content to be normalized. The extraction of the living tissue in a way that the enzymes remain operative is the base, on which the reaction is dependant on. The DTNB is reduced by the CoASH which is a stiochiometric by product of the reaction. The DTNB changes color, as is reduced with a peak absorbance of 412um. The procedure relies on the extraction of the CS in a cold buffer. A small portion is diluted with an Acetyl-CoA solution, the reaction begins when the Oxalo- acetate solution is added, as a result the color changes which can be monitored in a spectrophotometer. RESULTS      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Results clearly show that mytilus grow more in pristine as compared to polluted areas. There are several factors that affect mytilus growth in polluted areas. Graph polluted A (obtained from polluted A readings) Lab 6 The threshold salinity levels were recorded for the individual age groups consisting of a variation of behavioural response to salinity fluctuations. Low levels of water salinity below the critical values caused the isolating responses like closing the mantle cavity, withdrawal of siphons closing the shell valves in Mytilus. Another factor noticed was that the age did not influence the sensitivity of mussels to low salinity elevated temperature. However the older mussels exhibited a slightly lower critical salinity value after going through the fluctuations.   Ã‚   The scope for mussel growth except under treatments of no algae high silt; remained positive when carbon assimilation true, the rates of respiration excretion were balanced against energy intake. In estuarine systems, where the seston quality quantity is variable, makes the mussels living there evolve a feeding strategy involving minimal metabolic cost, at the same time maximizes energy assimilation while acquiring food from the environment. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A number of factors can hinder growth of mytilus in polluted areas. In polluted areas the change in mass of mytilus was much greater with slight variations of temperature. However, contrary to this the change in mass was negligible in pristine area. Several factors can hinder growth of mytilus on polluted surface. Pollutant in water and air can hinder their growth. Pollutants also destroy the food stuff and nutrients, hence, the mytilus species may find difficulty in getting well nourishment. Environmental variations have also deep affect on their growth. The blue mussels can subsist in air for 10 14 days at a varying temperature from 10 -20 degree C. even longer at lower temperatures. Like many other intertidal mollusc, M. edulis uses a complex behavioural physiological bio chemical mechanism to tolerate prolonged periods of air exposure extreme salinity changes or other un- favourable environmental conditions. Mussels that are smaller medium in size are not as predisposed to air exposure unlike large mussels, mainly because of higher absolute values of metabolic rate in the large mussels. In our experimental research, the size did not play a role in survival in air. The factors change from specie to specie, for example in some species of mussels the resistance increases the developmental age of the animal, and once it reaches the maximum level it may be possible that the process reverses.   Ã‚   When blue mussels M. edulis were exposed to high concentrations of copper Antarctic scallop Adamussium colbecki to high concentrations of cadmium, the age factor did not influence the survival; however the capacity to convalesce deteriorates with age.   Ã‚  The physiological traits of food ingestion rate, carbon assimilation efficiency, and respiration excretion rates are integrated by the energy accessible for growth, by supplying a prompt quantitative estimation of the energy status of the mussels. Conducting researched on this fact can provide insight into the growth process the influence of physiological activities. The Geukensia demissa or commonly known as the ribbed mussels can exert a profound influence on ecological processes of salt marshes on the Atlantic coast of North America. These mussel species are quite vulnerable to predators in the sub tidal area, since they have relatively thin shells; however they are very much physiologically adapted to the extreme environment where they are exposed to 70% air of the tidal cycle, this exposure draws the mussels against some severe stress since they are unable to perform feeding, defecation other essential physiological functions due to limitation of time. The mussels favour a pristine environment over REFERENCES â€Å"Mytilus edulis† Environmental Requirements: (n.d.) UK marine special areas of conservation [Accessed 4 December 2007] http://www.ukmarinesac.org.uk/communities/biogenic-reefs/br3_4.htm Tyler-Walters, H., 2007. Mytilus edulis. Common mussel. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-program [14 September 2007] Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [Accessed 4 December 2007] http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/Mytilusedulis.htm Sukhotin, A.A. Lajus, D.L. Lesin P.A. (28 October 2002) Influence of age and size on pumping activity and stress resistance in the marine bivalve Mytilus edulis L: Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology [Accessed 4 December 2007] 284: 129– 144 http//:www.elsevier.com/locate/jembe Huang, S. C. Newell, R.I.E. (5 February 2002) Seasonal variations in the rates of aquatic and aerial respiration and ammonium excretion of the ribbed mussel, Geukensia demissa (Dillwyn) Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology [Accessed 4 December 2007]270: 241– 255 http//:www.elsevier.com/locate/jembe Eder1, E. B. Lewis, M. N. (28 April 2005) Proximate composition and energetic value of demersal and pelagic prey species from the SW Atlantic Ocean: MARINE ECOLOGY PROGRESS SERIES [Accessed 4 December 2007]Vol. 291: 43–52, Arifin, Zainal. Leah I. Bendell-Young (27 March 2001) Cost of selective feeding by the blue mussel / Mytilus trossulus as measured by respiration and ammonia excretion rates: Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology [Accessed 4 December 2007] 260 259–269 http//:www.elsevier.nlrlocaterjembe

Health and Social Care Essay Example for Free

Health and Social Care Essay Government: (National)- Greenwich Council (Locally) World Heritage Site (Internally). The National Maritime Museum set target by the government to meet the needs and to attract different types of customer all over the world and also to provide better facilities such as providing wheel chair for disabled people. Sponsors: one of the sponsors is PO they want quality exhibits, which means they could have good publicity which lead to better public image. Researchers- Researchers produce different types of research from over the world and encourage the museum to improve on their exhibits. Suppliers: who supply food and other products and the supplier expect good pay at the right time. Owners of Exhibits: The owner of exhibits wants security on their collections of picture or etc and a good feedback from the museum. Customers: The customer wants good Customer Service, helpfulness staff and to provide better facilities for special needs. Staff: The staff should be motivated, which then will lead to good sales and profit. The staff will have an experience working with different types of customers. Friends ([emailprotected]): Friends of the National Maritime Museum actively support the largest Maritime Museum in the world. The friends mission is to support the work of the National Maritime Museum, the Royal Observatory and the Queens House by. In 1997/1998 the Maritime Museum had 50% of people visited the museum, but in 1998/1999 the Maritime Museum had 54%, which means the visitor number has increased by 4%. In 1999/00 the museum had 52% but by 2000/01 it has decreased by 3%. By 2001/02 the museum visitors has gone up by 10%. This table shows the predicted target market. The age group of 18-24, In 1997/98 they were 10% of Visitors and in 2001/02 it was 7% which means it has decreased by 3 % since 1997/1998. In 1997/98 they were 18% of visitors visited who are aged from 25-34 and in 2001/02 it was 19%, which means it has gone up by 1% since 1997/98. Although it was a change in 1998/99, because the number of visitors who are aged 25-34 has increased by 4% since1997/98. The age group 35-44, in 1997/98 it was 23% and in 2001/02 it was 23% which means they have been no change but in 1999/00 the percentage went up suddenly they have decrease since 2000/02. In 1997/98 it was 24% but in 1998/99 the percentage went down by 2%. From 1999/01 they have been no change of percentage of visitors arriving but in 2001/02 the percentage has decreased by 1% since 2000/01. The age group of 55-64, in 1997/98 it was 15% but the figure went down until 1999/00. However the figure went up in 2000/02. In 1997/98 it was 10% of visitors who are aged 65+ but the percentage stayed same until 1999. Although the percentage starts to rise slowly in 2000 by 2001 the percentage has gone up by 2%. This table shows the predicted income. In 1997/98 it was 37% visitors visited who were A/B Income earners, but by 2001/02 it has increased by 47%. The C1 Income earners visited the museum in 1997/98 was 46% and in 2001/02 it has decreased by 35%, but also the percentage did rise in 1999/00. In 1997/98 it was 12% who were C2 income earners, but in 2001/02 it has decreased by 9%, however the figure did rise in 1999/00. the D/E Income earners visited the museum in 1997/98 was 5% but in 2001/02 it has gone up by 9%, but there was steady change in 1998/2000. Overall it show that in 1997/98 it was most likely that C1 Income earners visited the Museum but by 2001/02 it has changed because A/B Income earners are likely to visit the museum * Predicted staffing needs This table shows the staffing levels. The visitors were very satisfied with the exhibition display in 1997/98 but the visitors were very satisfied in 2001/02 because it has gone up by 4%. There were only 2% of visitors not satisfied with the exhibition display in 1997/98 but it went down by 1%. In 1997/98, 50% of visitors were satisfied with the staff but in 2001/02 the percentage has increased by 14%. They were no satisfaction in 1997/98 or in 2001/02. This is an evaluation on customer service at Maritime Museum. I will be evaluating the service provided by the museum when I went for the visit. I enjoyed my trip to the Maritime Museum and it has helped with my assignment on customer service and also they provided information, which will help my coursework. The service provided by the National Maritime Museum was excellent and the staffs were motivated to their work. I had great greetings when I visited the museum and I was provided information on the exhibits, when I didnt know. E. g. when I visited one of the history section I didnt know about Nelson so the staff took his time to explain for us, so I thought that was good customer service. The lecture from the staff was good because they took their time on providing information, which I thought it was a good customer service. The purpose of this letter is to express to you my apologies for any inconvenience you may have experienced on the 27th of March 2006 due to standards of service you experienced in our restaurant. I have taken my time to investigate your case and the possible reason I could give you is that my staff didnt have record of your booking and so you had to wait for 45 minutes to be seated because the restaurant was full. We are terribly sorry if you were embarrassed by our service. During the 45 minutes the manager sat you at the bar and gave your party free drinks. As soon as the table were clear, the staff sat you down in two different tables and meanwhile we were preparing vegetarian food. I have come up with a solution to solve these problems. I will be talking to my staff about the record of booking. I will also have word with the waitress and provide better training on dealing with customers. I will make sure the systems work correctly. For the Disappointment service you had received by our restaurant we will provide you a free meal and better service from our restaurant. Once again I am terribly sorry for the service provided by our restaurant

Compare and Contrast the Ideas and Techniques of the Poets in the some

Compare and Contrast the Ideas and Techniques of the Poets in the some of the Love Poems we have Studied Love is a very popular topic for poetry. This is because love is one of the only things that there is no scientific fact no true definition and can be thought of in so many different ways. Poets can use poems to portray all the different types of love that people feel, romantic, young, stereotypical, fake, possessive, physical, the list is endless. Three poems that portray some of these are â€Å"The Flea†, â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† and â€Å"A Woman to her Lover†. I like the poems â€Å"The Flea† and â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† by John Donne because of the imagery and metaphors he uses to give us an understanding of both poems. I also like the poem â€Å"A Woman to Her Lover† by Christina Walsh because it gives a woman’s view of love. This gives a significant contrast to Donne’s poems. â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† is a good contrast to â€Å"The Flea† since in â€Å"The Flea† the man who is talking is trying to persuade the woman to sleep with him when she is trying to refuse. Whilst in â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† the man speaking is trying to persuade the woman being apart from each other will not break them up. In both poems Donne uses very strong imagery as a persuasive technique. For example there is a very good and strong in â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning†. Donne uses a compass to define the woman and the man moving away from each other. He uses the idea of the compass by making his lover the pointed end that stays in the same place and him being the end that has the lead attached which moves back and forth. Donne uses the image to show how even if he moves back and forth, ... ...elebration of their love. Christina Walsh talks of the music of the spheres, this is because as the planets moved the planets made music so joyous the heavens rejoiced in their love. This is a strong and another Biblical image to show how greater love the woman wants to have with her lover. â€Å"And we shall have the music of the spheres for bridal march† These three poems represent three couples who seem completely different because of the way they want to show their love but also alike. â€Å"The Flea† is an example of the stereotypical desire for physical love, â€Å"A Woman to Her Lover† is an example of a woman who is expecting this stereotypical love but yet wants true and holy love. Finally â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† is an example of this pure and great love that does not have physical needs, the love that the woman in â€Å"A Woman to Her Lover† wants. Compare and Contrast the Ideas and Techniques of the Poets in the some Compare and Contrast the Ideas and Techniques of the Poets in the some of the Love Poems we have Studied Love is a very popular topic for poetry. This is because love is one of the only things that there is no scientific fact no true definition and can be thought of in so many different ways. Poets can use poems to portray all the different types of love that people feel, romantic, young, stereotypical, fake, possessive, physical, the list is endless. Three poems that portray some of these are â€Å"The Flea†, â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† and â€Å"A Woman to her Lover†. I like the poems â€Å"The Flea† and â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† by John Donne because of the imagery and metaphors he uses to give us an understanding of both poems. I also like the poem â€Å"A Woman to Her Lover† by Christina Walsh because it gives a woman’s view of love. This gives a significant contrast to Donne’s poems. â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† is a good contrast to â€Å"The Flea† since in â€Å"The Flea† the man who is talking is trying to persuade the woman to sleep with him when she is trying to refuse. Whilst in â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† the man speaking is trying to persuade the woman being apart from each other will not break them up. In both poems Donne uses very strong imagery as a persuasive technique. For example there is a very good and strong in â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning†. Donne uses a compass to define the woman and the man moving away from each other. He uses the idea of the compass by making his lover the pointed end that stays in the same place and him being the end that has the lead attached which moves back and forth. Donne uses the image to show how even if he moves back and forth, ... ...elebration of their love. Christina Walsh talks of the music of the spheres, this is because as the planets moved the planets made music so joyous the heavens rejoiced in their love. This is a strong and another Biblical image to show how greater love the woman wants to have with her lover. â€Å"And we shall have the music of the spheres for bridal march† These three poems represent three couples who seem completely different because of the way they want to show their love but also alike. â€Å"The Flea† is an example of the stereotypical desire for physical love, â€Å"A Woman to Her Lover† is an example of a woman who is expecting this stereotypical love but yet wants true and holy love. Finally â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning† is an example of this pure and great love that does not have physical needs, the love that the woman in â€Å"A Woman to Her Lover† wants.

Stephen William Hawking :: essays research papers

Stephen William Hawking was born on 8 January in Oxford, England. His parents' house was in north London, but during the second world war Oxford was considered a safer place to have babies. When he was eight, his family moved to St Albans, a town about 20 miles north of London. At eleven Stephen went to St Albans School, and then on to University College, Oxford, his father's old college. Stephen wanted to do Mathematics, although his father would have preferred medicine. Mathematics was not available at University College, so he did Physics instead. After three years and not very much work he was awarded a first class honours degree in Natural Science. Stephen then went on to Cambridge to do research in Cosmology, there being no-one working in that area in Oxford at the time. His supervisor was Denis Sciama, although he had hoped to get Fred Hoyle who was working in Cambridge. After gaining his Ph.D. he became first a Research Fellow, and later on a Professorial Fellow at Gonville and Caius College. After leaving the Institute of Astronomy in 1973 Stephen came to the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, and since 1979 has held the post of Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. The chair was founded in 1663 with money left in the will of the Reverend Henry Lucas, who had been the Member of Parliament for the University. It was first held by Isaac Barrow, and then in 1669 by Isaac Newton. Stephen Hawking has worked on the basic laws which govern the universe. With Roger Penrose he showed that Einstein's General Theory of Relativity implied space and time would have a beginning in the Big Bang and an end in black holes. These results indicated it was necessary to unify General Relativity with Quantum Theory, the other great Scientific development of the first half of the 20th Century. One consequence of such a unification that he discovered was that black holes should not be completely black, but should emit radiation and eventually evaporate and disappear. Another conjecture is that the universe has no edge or boundary in imaginary time. This would imply that the way the universe began was completely determined by the laws of science. His many publications include The Large Scale Structure of Spacetime with G F R Ellis, General Relativity: An Einstein Centenary Survey, with W Israel, and 300 Years of Gravity, with W Israel. Stephen William Hawking :: essays research papers Stephen William Hawking was born on 8 January in Oxford, England. His parents' house was in north London, but during the second world war Oxford was considered a safer place to have babies. When he was eight, his family moved to St Albans, a town about 20 miles north of London. At eleven Stephen went to St Albans School, and then on to University College, Oxford, his father's old college. Stephen wanted to do Mathematics, although his father would have preferred medicine. Mathematics was not available at University College, so he did Physics instead. After three years and not very much work he was awarded a first class honours degree in Natural Science. Stephen then went on to Cambridge to do research in Cosmology, there being no-one working in that area in Oxford at the time. His supervisor was Denis Sciama, although he had hoped to get Fred Hoyle who was working in Cambridge. After gaining his Ph.D. he became first a Research Fellow, and later on a Professorial Fellow at Gonville and Caius College. After leaving the Institute of Astronomy in 1973 Stephen came to the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, and since 1979 has held the post of Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. The chair was founded in 1663 with money left in the will of the Reverend Henry Lucas, who had been the Member of Parliament for the University. It was first held by Isaac Barrow, and then in 1669 by Isaac Newton. Stephen Hawking has worked on the basic laws which govern the universe. With Roger Penrose he showed that Einstein's General Theory of Relativity implied space and time would have a beginning in the Big Bang and an end in black holes. These results indicated it was necessary to unify General Relativity with Quantum Theory, the other great Scientific development of the first half of the 20th Century. One consequence of such a unification that he discovered was that black holes should not be completely black, but should emit radiation and eventually evaporate and disappear. Another conjecture is that the universe has no edge or boundary in imaginary time. This would imply that the way the universe began was completely determined by the laws of science. His many publications include The Large Scale Structure of Spacetime with G F R Ellis, General Relativity: An Einstein Centenary Survey, with W Israel, and 300 Years of Gravity, with W Israel.

Basic Principles of Tort Supported by Case Law.

Introduction This essay is an attempt to advise Changwa on the area of law under which he can bring an action in view of the facts given in the question. The essay will also attempt to advise Changwa with respect to the person against whom such action can be brought. In order to achieve this end, the essay will pay particular attention to the salient elements he has to establish in the area of law identified, if at all he is to succed in his claim. The essay will conclude by looking at the likely difficulties Changwa may encounter in succeeding in his claim in the event that he was to bring an action. The advice will be with the aid of decided cases where necessary. Area of Law and the Potential Defendant. In view of the facts given in this case, the name of the area of law under which Changwa can bring an action is in the tort of negligence. Accordingly, he must bring this action firstly against the pub manager for the cockroach found in the food. Secondly, the action must be brought against the manufacturers of the red wine. This is so because the pub manager is merely the retailer with no opportunity to temper with the contents of the red wine. The law of negligence dates back as far as 1856 when Lord Baron Alderson in Blyth v Birmingham Water Works Company gave a simple and precise definition of what constitutes negligence in the following terms; Negligence is the omission to do something which a reasonable man guided upon those considerations which ordinarily regulate the conduct of human affairs would do, or doing something which a prudent and reasonable man would not do. It follows therefore that negligence consists of either an act or omission on the part of the defendant. It is trite law that the tort of negligence has three essential elements, which any claimant must prove in order to succeed in his action against the defendant. These three elements are existence of duty of care owed to the claimant, breach of such duty of care by the defendant and lastly the resulting damage to the claimant arising from the breach of the duty of care . Each of the above elements of the tort of negligence will now be discussed in turn. Existence of duty of care It is now settled law that there exists no all embracing duty owed to the whole world in all circumstances. However, the determining issue is whether a duty of care existed and whether it was owed to the particular plaintiff. The basis of the law of negligence is that the defendant owes the plaintiff a duty of care. It must be mentioned that the duty owed to a claimant is not imposed by contract but is one imposed by the law. The modern law as regards this aspect of the law of negligence was extensively canvassed in the celebrated case of Donoghue v Stevenson where the House of Lords were confronted with the general question of whether a manufacturer owed a duty of care to the ultimate consumer of his products and they proceeded to hold that he did. In that case, the plaintiff became ill after drinking ginger beer from a bottle which contained a decomposing snail in it. She had not bought the daring herself, so she was unable to rely on a breach of contract. In this regard, she sued the manufacturers of the beer under the tort of negligence, claiming that they owed her a duty of care. The House of Lord decided the case in the plaintiff’s favour and the case is an authority because of the rule of law laid down by Lord Atkin when he stated thus; The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer's question, who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour. Who, then, in law is my neighbour? The answer seems to be – persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question This test has been criticised as being too wide but it made it easier for lawyers to argue that there should be liability for negligently causing harm in new situations. Similarly, in Anns v Merton , the court had the following to say concerning the duty of care; In order to establish that a duty of care arises in a particular situation, it is not necessary to bring the facts of that situation within those of previous situations in which a duty of care has been held to exist. Rather the question has to be approached in two stages. First one has to ask whether, as between the alleged wrongdoer and the person who has suffered damage there is a sufficient relationship of proximity or neighbourhood such that, in the reasonable contemplation of the former, carelessness on his part may be likely to cause damage to the latter – in which case a prima facie duty of care arises. Secondly, if the first question is answered affirmatively, it is necessary to consider whether there are any considerations which ought to negative, or to reduce or limit the scope of the duty or the class of person to whom it is owed or the damages to which a breach of it may give rise In view of the above exposition of the law, it is clear that firstly, the pub manager owes a duty of care to Changwa to ensure that he is not harmed by the food prepared therein. Secondly, the manufacturer of the red wine ought to have the consumer in contemplation as a person who would likely be affected by the actions of the manufacturer. The above cases show that the manufacturer and not the retailer, owes a duty of care to the consumer in instances where the retailer has no power whatsoever as to the contents or quality of a product. In view of this duty, a manufacturer in the position of the manufacturer of the red wine must take reasonable steps to ensure that the drinks they produce do not contain any impurities which would be harmful to the consumer. Breach of Duty of Care A potential defendant will be negligent by falling below the standards of the ordinary reasonable person in his situation, that is, by doing something which the reasonable man would not do or failing to do something which the reasonable man would do. According to the learned authors of English Law , if a duty of care is established as a matter of law, whether or not the defendant was in breach of that duty is a matter of fact. Even if the plaintiff succeeds in showing that the defendant owes a duty of care, it is not sufficient for purposes of negligence unless a breach of that duty is shown . In deciding whether a defendant has acted negligently, the decision is based on an objective test of what a reasonable man would do. The court will decide if the defendant fell below the standard of the reasonable man. The standard of care expected from this hypothetical character is objective; not taking into account the characteristics or weaknesses of the defendant, as was aptly stated by the court in Nettleship v Weston . However, it must be mentioned that the courts expect people to take only reasonable precautions in guarding against harm to others, and this position of the law was affirmed in Latimer v AEC Ltd . In assessing what is reasonable under the circumstances, the court will consider the likelihood of harm occurring. The greater the risk of harm, the greater the precautions that will need to be taken, as was held in Miller v Jackson In the instant case, the test would be whether a reasonable person in the position of both the pub manager and the manufacturer of red wine would have neglected to carry out an inspection of their products in order to ensure that the consumer will not be harmed by the contents thereof. The obvious answer to the above question is not in the affirmative but in the negative. In this regard, Changwa would successfully establish the second element of the tort of negligence against firstly the pub manager and secondly the wine manufacturer, although this in itself is by no means conclusive that the defendants are liable to the plaintiff. At this point, in order to succeed in the tort of negligence, he will then need to establish the third element of the tort of negligence, namely that he suffered damage as a result of the breach of the duty of care by the defendant. Damage The learned authors of Clerk and Lindsell on Tort assert that it is important for the plaintiff in an action for negligence to prove the resulting damage to him from the breach of the duty of care. This is essentially premised o the fact that negligence is not actionable per se. It is necessary therefore for Changwa in this case, to show that he has suffered some harm, either physical injury, economic harm or psychological harm. This part of the elements of the law of negligence constitutes one of the difficulties that Changwa is likely to encounter in succeeding with the claim. In Donoghue v Stevenson , the House of Lords found in favour of the plaintiff because she was able to show that she had suffered a mental or nervous shock after drinking the Ginger Beer in which a decomposed snail was found. It is now categorically clear that breach of duty of care is necessary but in itself and by itself not conclusive that the plaintiff will be entitled to damages. To this effect, resulting damage is essential in this regard. This qualifies the earlier point that negligence is not actionable per se but damage must be proved if a claimant is to succeed. The Zambian courts have had several instances where they have pronounced themselves on this third aspect or element of the law of negligence. In Zambia Breweries Plc v Reuben Mwanza The respondent, Reuben Mwanza bought a bottle of a castle lager beer at a bottle store and this bottle was opened in his presence. He drunk half of the contents and he then felt as if he was choking and on examination of the bottle he found that it contained a dead lizard. The learned trial judge found as a fact that the appellants were negligent in the manufacture of the castle beer with a dead lizard in it and awarded the respondent K50, 000,000 as damages. The appellant then appealed against the excessive award of damages. The Supreme Court had the following to say in relation to the issue of damages; We have considered the submissions on this head and we agree that the K50, 000,000 awarded in this area is excessive. In doing so we take into account the conduct of the respondent after discovering a lizard in his beer. Although the respondent stated that he was shocked with the discovery of the lizard, it is shocking to us that when he was offered another beer, he quickly took it and consumed. There was no revolting reaction. Further, when he went to the Chilenje clinic he never revealed what has caused his â€Å"illness† so that proper diagnosis could be given. The reasoning of the court from the above sentiments is to the effect that there was no evidence to show that the claimant had suffered any harm, whether mental or physical thus the award was reduced. The court further stated thus; â€Å"the plaintiff has, therefore, a duty to bring credible evidence of illness. The award in this instant case comes to us with a sense of shock as being wrong in principle and on the higher side. We want to take advantage of this case to point out that in future nothing will be awarded if no proper evidence of a medical nature is conducted. † Similarly, in Continental Restaurant & Casino LTD. v. Arida Mercy Chulu , the court had the following to say as regards the need to prove actual damage in an action for negligence; The important point to stress, however, is that in cases of this nature, the basis of awarding damages is to vindicate the injury suffered by the plaintiff. The money was to be awarded in the instant case not because there was a cockroach in the soup, but on account of the harm or injury done to the health, mental or physical, of the plaintiff. Thus in the Donoghue case the plaintiff was hospitalised. Mild condition is generally not enough a basis for awarding damages. The plaintiff has, therefore, a duty to bring credible evidence of illness. The award in this instant case comes to us with a sense of shock as being wrong in principle and on the higher side. We want to take advantage of this case to point out that in future nothing will be warded if no proper evidence of a medical nature is conducted. Furthermore, in the case of Michael Chilufya Sata v Zambia Bottlers Limited , claimant found a cockroach in the drink but had not yet taken the drink when the cockroach was discovered. In a claim by the claimant, the Supreme Court of Zambia held to the effect that there was no injury or damage caused to the appellant by the adulterated drin k as he did not consume it. Furthermore, the court noted correctly that negligence alone does not give a cause of action; damage alone does not give a cause of action; the two must co-exist. It therefore follows, that for Changwa to successfully claim damages, he must prove the actual harm suffered with respect to both the food and the red wine. CONCLUSION AND ADVICE In view of the explanation of the law that has bee done above, Changwa will now be advised as follows; †¢In view of the facts given in the question, he would bring an action in the tort of negligence. †¢The person that Changwa should sue is the owner of the restaurant for the fly found in the food. This is so irrespective of the fact that changwa is not the one who bought the food because the duty of care is not contractual but is imposed by the law. In this vain, the pub owes a duty of care to Changwa. Secondly, Changwa can also bring an action for negligence against Manufacturer of the red wine for the cockroach found in the wine. This is because in cases such as these ones where the retailer has no control on the contents of the wine, recourse is had to the manufacturer, who is under a duty to take reasonable steps to ensure that the drink does not cause harm to the consumers who must be in the reasonable contemplation of the manufacturer. The tort of negligence comprises of three essential ingredients, namely; duty of care, breach of duty of care and the resultant damage, which elements have been discussed in sufficient detail above. In order to succeed in the tort of negligence, the claimant must establish all the three elements. †¢Changwa will easily prove the first two elements of negligence. However, he may encounter problems with the third element in view of the fact that it has not been shown from the question whet her he suffered any harm after taking the food which had a fly. The law on negligence demands that the claimant must substantiate the harm caused by the defendant’s breach of duty. This will be problematic for Changwa in view of the fact that he did not suffer any damage. Secondly, it will be difficult if not impossible for Changwa to substantiate his claim with respect to the red wine because he did not take the wine, thus clearly no harm was suffered by himself. In view of the collated explanations given in this essay, Changwa is advised accordingly. Bibliography Clerk and Lindsell. 2003. Law of Tort, 16th ed Cooke, J. 2003. Law of Tort, 6th ed. Liverpool: Moores University. Rogers, W. 1994. Winfield and Jolowicz on Tort, 13th ed. London: Sweet and Maxwell. Smith and Keenan. 1966. English Law, 2nd ed. London: Pitman and Sons Cases referred to Anns v Merton [1977] 2 All ER 492 Blyth v Birmingham Water Works Company [1856] 11 Exch 781 Continental Restaurant & Casino Ltd. v. Arida Mercy Chulu S. C. Z. No. 28 of 2000 Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562 Latimer v AEC Ltd [1952] 1 All ER 1302 Michael Chilufya Sata v Zambia Bottlers Limited SCZ No. 1 OF 2003 Miller v Jackson [1977] 3 All ER 338 Nettleship v Weston [1971] 3 All ER 581 Zambia Breweries Plc v Reuben Mwanza S. C. Z. NO. 39 OF 2000

Taxation of Ill Gotten Gains in South Africa

It has recently been reported in the press that SARS has lodged a claim for R183 million in income tax against the estate of the slain mining magnate, Brett Kebble in respect of the R2 billion allegedly stolen by him from the mining companies of which he was a director. It is further reported that the Master of the High Court has rejected the claim on the grounds that the amounts on which SARS sought to levy tax constituted money stolen by Kebble, and that stolen money is not subject to income tax. It has been reported that SARS is to take the Master?s decision in this regard on review. Why the issue is being contested on the basis of review, as distinct from the ordinary process of assessment followed by objection and appeal, is not clear. A review is concerned only with the regularity of the process by which a decision was reached, not with the correctness of the decision itself. A moot point of tax law The Kebble case raises an interesting and unresolved tax issue and, in view of the large sum at stake, it may be a case that will go all the way to the Supreme Court of Appeal and bring long-overdue certainty to the law. The Income Tax Act No. 58 of 1962 (the Act) is of no assistance in determining the issue. Section 23(o) states that payments that are illegal in terms of Chapter 2 of the Prevention and Combating of Corrupt Activities Act No. 12 of 2004 or that constitute a fine or penalty for any unlawful activity carried out in the Republic (or in any other country if that activity would be unlawful if carried out in the Republic) are not deductible for income tax purposes. There is, however, nothing in the Act to say that the recipient of corrupt or illegal payments is (or is not) subject to income tax on such amounts, and this issue must, therefore, be resolved by the application of common law, that is to say, in terms of principles laid down by the courts. In COT v G [1981] (43 SATC 159) the Appellate Division of Zimbabwe held that a person who steals money does not â€Å"receive† it in the sense contemplated in the definition of â€Å"gross income† in the Act, because he does not acquire the money â€Å"on his own behalf and for his own benefit†. If this is correct, then the question of whether or not such an amount â€Å"is income† does not arise, since it is only once an amount has been received or accrued that the issue arises as to whether it is income or capital. However, the correctness of this decision is suspect. Certainly, from the thief?s perspective, the reason why he stole the money was precisely to acquire it â€Å"for his own benefit† and the interpretation that the judge accorded this phrase is, with respect, legalistic, artificial and unsupported by authority. In ITC 1789 (67 SATC 205), where the taxpayer in question had solicited millions of rand from a multitude of investors in a fraudulent and unlawful scheme, the court held that those moneys had been â€Å"received† as contemplated in the definition of ?gross income?. If both of these decisions are good law, it would mean that (as was held in ITC 1789) a person who systematically cheats others out of money is subject to income tax on his booty, but that (as was held in G v COT) a person who actually steals money in a systematic way is not taxable. This, it is submitted, is a preposterous and untenable distinction. The true issue was whether the amounts were â€Å"income† It is submitted that both these cases ought to have been decided on the basis of whether, in the particular circumstances, the amounts in question had the character of â€Å"income† in the hands of the felon, rather than on the issue of whether or not the moneys had been â€Å"received† by him. Beneficial receipt was surely self-evident in both cases. It can hardly be seriously contended that a thief or confidence trickster does not intend to acquire the victim?s money for his own benefit, and treat it as his own. The issue of whether money that has been stolen or is otherwise tainted with illegality is â€Å"income† in the hands of the recipient and is therefore subject to income tax, raises many thorny issues, never to date fully addressed let alone resolved by our courts. Some of the aspects of the issue as to whether illegal receipts are taxable as income are ? †¢Illegal receipts range from those that are tainted with a mere technical illegality, such as those derived from trading without a licence, to morally reprehensible receipts such as the proceeds of drug-dealing or a fee paid to a hit-man for carrying out an assassination. In the tax context, do the same principles apply to every kind of illegal receipt? †¢If SARS were to take a slice of an illegal receipt, would this not make the State complicit in the illegality? If income tax were to be imposed on the recipient of stolen money, this would reduce the funds available to repay the rightful owner. It needs to be remembered that, in law, ownership of the money has passed to the thief, and all that the owner has is a claim in personam against the thief for repayment. If the thief has spent the money and is unable to repay it, the victim is merely a concurrent creditor in the thief?s ins olvent estate. SARS, by contrast, has a preferential claim, in terms of the Insolvency Act, for any taxes due. If income tax were payable on the stolen money, it is thus conceivable that SARS would recover all or some of the tax, but that the victim would not get his money back. This, it is submitted, is an unpalatable result. Should SARS get involved at all? There is a strong argument that, where illegal payments are concerned ? certainly in regard to stolen money ? it would be preferable for tax law to stand aloof, attach no tax consequences to the receipt of the money, and let the whole matter be decided in terms of criminal law. However, in view of the uncertainty in the law on this point, SARS can hardly be faulted for asserting a claim.

World War I and World War II - 700 Words

Many people know about World War I and World War II seeing that they are a couple of the world’s most famous wars. Have you ever wondered how much you really know? This paper is here to inform you of all of the propaganda used to persuade people to follow Hitler, the Nazi party, and Stalin, terms that were used during this time period, and some of the very important people involved in World War I and in World War II. In the heat of World War I there were two groups, the Allies and the Central Powers. The Allies, which included France, Britain and Russia, went against the Central Powers. The Russian Revolution was also going on during this time period, which was a term that described a series of revolutions in Russia. These series of†¦show more content†¦Basically Hitler was saying that if children of Germany were weak and did not conform to his beliefs and become an ideal Nazi, the children had no chance. After Hitler came to power all of the other youth movements were abolished. By 1933 the Hitler Youth membership was up to 100,000 members and it was seen as repulsive if a child from ages 10 through 18 were not a member. Anti-Semitism is a prejudice belief and the hatred of a certain racial group. Anti- Semitism is a form of racism. Anti-Semitism members expressed their feelings towards the Jewish community in many different ways. Most showed their hatred of the Jews and discriminated individually. Others organized extremely violent mobs, and military attacks on entire Jewish communities. The Allied forces of World War II included the United States, Britain and the USSR. The Allies were the countries opposing the Axis Powers. Their goal was to stop German, Italian and Japanese aggression. The Soviet Union joined the Allied forces after being invaded by Germany and its Allies in 1941, the United States also joined after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December of 1941. The relationship between Britain and the US were extremely close, but other key alliances were China, Canada and India. The Axis Powers were the nations that fought in World War II against the Allied forces. The Axis Powers were brought together by their opposition against the Western world and the Soviet Union. Their goal wasShow MoreRelatedThe War I And World War II1660 Words   |  7 Pagesin thehistory of the world were World War I and World War II. World War I occurred from 1914 to 1918. World War I was caused by militarism, alliances, nationalism, imperialism and assassination (MANIA). The first four causations were more of a build-up to it. Then, once the Arch-Duke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated, the buildup was sparked. This can be compared to pouring gasoline on the ground and then lighting it on fire. 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I will give a brief overview of both wars and explain exactly how and why the United States joined in each. The term First World War was first used in 1914 by Ernst Haeckel, who stated that, there is noRead MoreThe War I And World War II911 Words   |  4 Pages There are many countries in the world that have a great history. Their antiquity benefited them in one way or another. One of these nations is France, which is known to have glorious events in the past. These events have made France the way it is now. For example, World War I, and World War II. However, these events were not the only thing that had a major role in France’s history some people are involved as well, such as Napoleon Bonaparte I and Louis Napoleon III. Those two men controlled FranceRead MoreWar I And World War II919 Words   |  4 Pageshistorians debate rather World War I and World War II were two different parts to the same war or if they are separate and distinct wars. Even though World War I and World War II were very different wars, and there were many years in between the two, the outcomes of World W ar I caused for World War II to happen because of unresolved issues. World War II is a continuation of World War I. World War I lasted four years and was the first total war in history. Before World War I Europe was doing well theyRead MoreThe War I And World War II1930 Words   |  8 PagesSUMMARY OF WARS Humanity was forever changed after the wars of the 20th century. World War I and World War II are known for the millions of military and civilian lives they took away. Horrific words such as concentration camps, slave labor and genocide are linked to the wars. They are also credited to causing nations to rapidly come up and develop brilliant new inventions, warfare tactics and revolutionary ideas that are still playing intricate roles in modern day societies. Both of these wars were accreditedRead MoreThe War I And World War II Essay1639 Words   |  7 PagesThe â€Å"Thirty Years War† World War I and World War II are the largest military conflicts in history. In 1919, Europe attempted to reconstruct the damage left by WWI. After WWI, with the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was left destroyed and destabilized, which eventually laid out the foundation for WWII. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles led to the aggression of Germany. The Treaty of Versailles was supposed to bring about peace, but Marshall Foch, generalissimo of the Allied Armies in FranceRead MoreThe War I And World War II1191 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction During World War I and World War II life back home changed excessively. When the soldiers went to fight in World War 1 and World War 2, women and children had to replace men in the workforce. There was an increase in those affected by the trauma of the wars, and the birth-rates dropped during this time. 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Postwar foreign policy after wars such as World War I and World War II was complicated and both had their similarities and differences from each other. World War I (WWI) strengthened our international relations with many countries, It also deteriorated some relations as well and set the stage for America becoming a great power. World War II (WWII) had some of the same effects, solidating our

Increasing Demand For Shariah Products In Islamic Countries - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2938 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Introduction Islamic banking is a mechanism that is suppose to work within the principals of Shariah considering the ethical and moral values while conducting the financial dealings. Islamic banking is the new emerging banking system but its origin goes back to the times of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) who acted as an agent for Hazrat Khatja (Prophetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Wife) and looked after the business operations. Islamic banking is growly vastly in the global financial market. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Increasing Demand For Shariah Products In Islamic Countries" essay for you Create order The reasons that are enhancing its growth are that: There is an increasing demand for Shariah products in the Islamic countries. Investors due to the crisis like the financial crisis 2008-09 want to reduce their risk therefore need for diversification is inevitably rising. (Hassan et al. 2010) The first Islamic bank was established in Egypt more than 30 years ago. Today, the Shariah compliance asset have reached market share of $4 trillion according to Standards and Poorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s. The largest Islamic banks are situated in Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and Iran. Islamic banks design and development into new islamically products are attracting new customers along with they are progressing continuously into innovation in order to be compatible in the financial markets. This is because these newly emerging banking system needs to generate a feasible and satisfactory rate of return to its investors. (Bashir et al. 2003). In 2004, the market share of Islamic banks in c ountries of GULF COOPERATIVE COUNCIL (GCC) was reported to be between 5%-24%.In 2008, it was surprised to notice that it increased to 35% in GCC. (Hassan et al. 2010). Islamic banks are not just operating in the Muslim countries but also emerging in the Non-Muslim countries. For example in America à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Lariba-American Finance Houseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? is providing services in areas of leasing to purchase, construction finance, small businesses and trading finance. In the U.K, Islamic bank of Britain was established in 2004 with the permission from Financial Services Authority (FSA). Due to such an impact of Islamic banks in the world, many countries like Pakistan and Iran have attempted to introduce Islamic banking System. Therefore there has been no previous attempt to evaluate the progress of Islamic banks in Pakistan. Islamic research also lacks empirical studies in this regard which is one of the motives of this study to be able to evaluate and assess the performance of First Islamic bank (Meezan Bank) in Pakistan and arrive at the truth whether this new system of banking has a bright future or is just a phenomenon in journals!!! Literature Review Definition of Islamic Banking Islamic banks are managed according to the Shariah which prohibit the transactions based on interest as directed by Holy Quran. The distinctive feature of Islamic banking is the existence of the Shariah board that is comprised of Islamic scholars who are charged with the responsibility that the operations of the bank are in the light of the Holy Quran. (Christofi 2007). The term Islamic finance is applied to the provision of goods and services on deferred payments. Therefore we can say that Islamic banking provides services, machinery, and equipment to consumers at convenience of payment. It allows both parties to share profit and keep risk at one side. (Kahf et al. 1998). Islamic banking basic purpose is to promote the practise of the Islamic law, tradition in order that the financial dealings in the business environment are practised accordingly. (Association of Islamic banking institute Malaysia 2011).From this implementation of behaviour, it will help to protect the Muslim communities in the world from the forbidden tasks in Islam. Islamic banks are financial institutions that operate the activities of the bank in the guidance of Shariah and the basic model followed in Islamic banks is the profit and loss sharing. According to Al Ismaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢il (2010) these banks do not get engaged in the dealings of usury. According to author in the article à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Concept of Islamic Banking à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“concludes: Islamic banks collect and invest money in accordance to the Shariah principals. The amount invested can either generate a profit or a loss. These transactions are free from the element of riba (interest). Similarly, some researchers believe that Islamic banks are financial institutions that collect money (deposit) and utilize it in a way that serves both the society and individual needs according to the shariah principals. Evolution of Islamic Banking Islamic banking is not a new concept; it was present at times of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) via the system of Bait al-Mal, which basic motive at that time was to distribute booty of war, zakat and jazyah.The revenues gathered from this mal were distributed among the needy of the society and the mahajirs.Hazarat Umer the second caliph of Islam, established system of pension. A dewan was appointed to register the individuals for the scheme of pension.Hazarat Umer is the first registered individual in the history of Islam for taking care and feeding of needy in Islamic region. (Imam-ud-din 2005). Foundation of Islamic Banking The Islamic banking institutions in the world follow the shariah ruling which is derived from the Holy Quran, the Sunnah (Hadis of Prophet), and Fiqah (the legal advice of Muslim scholars).According to the Shariah board, all the Islamic banks in the world have to abide by the consent that there should be: Avoidance of riba (interest). Goods and services that are haram in Islam cannot be produced and cannot be consumed. Gharar which is the element of uncertainty cannot be undertaken. Zakat must be paid. According to Ahmad (1984) in order for the Islamic banks to exist there should be absence of interest.Riba is the Arabic name for interest and according to the Islamic definition it is the profit that comes from any effort made. In Islam riba is strictly prohibited but trade is allowed due to this unclear concept has raised many conflicts between different schools of thoughts. Hazrat Shah Wali Ullah Dehlvia, a scholar highlightedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Ribaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? as loan that comes with a condition. The return on this loan needs to be more than the amount borrowed. In the pre historic days of Islam interest was an evil that surrounded the society. Due to existence of interest, individuals were able to create monopolies and this could be obvious from the notion that rich clever individuals who lend money to needy had a share in the property and if they were unable to pay back the loan, they could lose what they once possessed.(Uloom 2001). Gharar is an Arabic word which is referred to as uncertainty. Thus gharar can be defined as the sale of goods or items whose time period or certainty is not known due to the risky nature just like gambling. (Academy for international modern studies). According to the Hanafi school of thought in Islam, Gharar is referred to as the sale whose outcomes are hidden and not known. (Islamic Banker 2009). Haram activities are not allowed in Islam especially in terms of investment. According to Samad et al (1998) Muslims are not allowed to invest in activities that are related to production or consumption of, pornography, pork, alcohol, tobacco, gambling and harmful drugs. Therefore it becomes very limited for the Islamic banks to invest according to the Quran guidance. Zakat is an Arabic word that refers to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Growthà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Purification.Zakat is the process of redistribution of wealth in islam.It is the Islamic tax (Zakat) that is an important tool in redistribution of wealth in the society. Therefore every Islamic bank is compiled to establish a zakat fund in order to help the poor of the society. (Suleiman 2009). Previous Research: Iqbal (2001) attempts to evaluate the performance of Islamic Banks and Conventional banks using Ratio analysis for the period covering 1990-98.For this study, the author evaluates 12 Islamic and Conventional banks from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Egypt, UAE, Jordan,Bangladesh,Malaysia and Turkey. From the research, Iqbal concludes that in terms of profitability ratios, ROA and ROE for Islamic banks tend to be greater than Conventional banks. Islamic banks have 2.3% and 22.6% of ROA and ROE respectively while Conventional banks have 1.35% and 15% respectively. In terms of Cost effectiveness, Islamic banks are identified with 52.4% of cost to income ratio while Conventional banks have 60.3%. With Liquidity ratio, Iqbal makes an astonishing discovery. He identifies that Islamic banks suffer from liquidity problem. The liquidity ratio for Islamic banks compared to conventional banks 31.9% was found to be 18.5%. The conclusion drawn from the study by Iqbal is that Islamic banks made a better use of resources and for the period of 1990-98, Islamic banks have higher growth rate compared to the traditional banks. Abdel and Bashir (2003) undertake a comparative study to evaluate the financial conditions that affect the performance of Islamic banks. For this research, the author utilized the data from1993-98 from eight Middle East countries namely Bahrain, Egypt Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, Sudan, Turkey and UAE. In order to identify the characteristics that affect the banks performance, a model is established that uses internal and external indicators. The internal indicators are evaluated by looking at the banks financial ratios while the external are measured by considering banks market share, regulatory compliance and public confidence. Regression is used as a method for the study, for which the author uses Capital ratio, leverage ratio, loan, liquidity and foreign ownership. These are used as an alternative to the internal indicators conversel y for the external indicators microeconomic, taxation and financial structuring of the country. From the study, the conclusion drawn is that the ratio and loan portfolio play a significant role in analysing the performance of Islamic banks. The profitability of Islamic banks can be well explained by foreign capital and therefore Islamic banks established in low income countries are motivated by the foreign capital. Due to the reserve requirement for the banks, Islamic banks face a challenge as their investments gets limited. Factors such as GDP and increase inflation have a consequence on the performance of the banks. Hassan and Dridi (2010) conduct a comparative study. They examine the performance of Islamic banks and Conventional banks during the financial crisis by analysing the effects on profitability, credit and asset growth. The authors selected banks from Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar, Jordan, Turkey and Malaysia. Conclusion of Hassan and Dridi (2010) su ggest that Islamic banks faced weaknesses in risk management that affected the profitability of the banks compared to the Conventional banks in 2009.Weaker performance of the Islamic banks in few countries could have been due to the insufficient regulatory framework of the countries. During the crisis, the credit and asset growth of Islamic banks were better compared to Conventional banks. Islamic banks profitability before the Global crisis broke was on average same as conventional banks. This paper suggests that better regulations and innovations in products are needed to encourage the growth of Islamic banks. Research Objectives To examine the features of Meezan bank in Pakistan. To examine the Islamic banking model used by Meezan bank in terms of (Mudaraba/Musharika). To evaluate the performance of Meezan bank with Conventional banks in terms of : Profitability Efficiency Liquidity To draw conclusions about the prospects of Meezan bank in Pakistan. Data and Methodology Islamic banking is a new growing financial institution across the globe but unfortunately it lacks empirical studies. Therefore the aim of this research is to fill the gap by evaluating the prospect of Meezan bank in Pakistan. Theoretical studies on Islamic banking has been undertaken by many researchers not just in Muslim countries but also in non-Muslim regions but due to the reason that Islamic banking is not as old as Traditional banking system, its lacks availability of data. Therefore establishing empirical research in this area has become a major challenge to the new researchers. For this research, a case study is selected. There are ten Islamic banks operating in Pakistan which include a full fledge Islamic banks and Islamic windows opened by Conventional banks. The reason to select Meezan bank for the case study is that the data covering 2005-09 was available. Secondly, it holds the prestigious honour to be the first Islamic bank in Pakistan which quickly established braches all over the country since its existence in 2003.In 2007, Meezan bank opened its 100th branch and in 2009 the bank was reported to have 42% share of Islamic banking branch network.Currently, Meezan bank is having 40% of market share in Islamic banking in Pakistan. This pioneer Islamic bank is awarded as the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Best Islamic Bank in Pakistanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? by Red money Group, Malaysia in 2010. For the data on the Conventional Banks in Pakistan five banks are selected for the study which includes Alfalah bank limited, Faisal bank limited, Habib bank limited , United bank limited and Askari Bank Limited. The research covers the period of 2005-09.Data for Islamic banks and Conventional banks will be taken from the financial statements of the banks and from Bank scope database. Ratio analysis is one of the profound techniques that aid to assess the performance of banks. Therefore the method to compare the two different banking systems will depend on: Profitabil ity Measures: the main objective of any firm is to maximize share holders wealth by utilizing the resources efficiently and effectively. Therefore for this research banks profitability will be evaluated by : Return on asset: It refers to the way in which the management of the bank utilizes the resources and assets in order to generate profits. (Alexandru et al. 2006). Return on equity: It measures what actually the shareholders get out of the investment they make. It is therefore regarded as the true measure of return for investment. (Ross et al. 2010). Profit margin: It tells that for every pound invested by the bank, how much they are getting in return. (Ross et al. 2010). Example if bank X has invested  £ 1 and it has a profit margin of 15.5% it indicates that for every  £, its generating more than 15.5cents.The aim of every bank is to have a higher profit margin. Liquidity Measures: It is the ability with which the bank is able to pay off its short term debt obligations. (Investopedia 2010). Current ratio: It measures the short-term liabilities of the bank (Ross et al. 2010). Loan to asset ratio: It measures the total percentage of asset invested in loans of a bank. Efficiency: Banks prefer to have a lower efficiency ratio as it is the percentage of expense to the revenue. (Wikipedia 2010). Asset utilization: It serves as a bench mark for the bank as it guides how effective is the management of the bank utilizing the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s assets ,inventory and account receivable on day to day basis.( Reference for business 2007). Cost to income ratio: This efficiency ratio tells us how costs are changing with changing income and banks prefer to have this ratio to be lower in percentage. (Money terms 2011). Table 1: Return on Asset for conventional banks of Pakistan (In percentage for 2005-09) Years Habib bank Alfalah Bank Unite Bank Faysal Bank Askari Bank Average ROA ROA ROA ROA ROA ROA 2005 1.82 0.51 1.72 2.87 1.38 1.66 2006 2.1 0.48 2.21 2.48 1.34 1.72 2007 1.45 1.06 1.68 1.57 1.49 1.45 2008 1.44 0.79 1.36 0.81 0.20 0.92 2009 1.55 -0.68 1.48 0.67 0.42 0.68 (Source: Derived) Table 2: Return on Asset for Meezan bank in Pakistan (In percentage for 2005-09) Year ROA 2005 1.36 2006 1.30 2007 1.43 2008 0.72 2009 0.82 (Source: Derived) FIGURE 3 Figure 3 depicts the position of both the banks during 2005-09.What we actually observe is that Meezan bank have witnessed a growth from 1.36% in 2005 to1.43% in 2007 which is similar to the traditional banks ROA.Similarly, Conventional banks from 2006 to 2007 show a decline in ROA from 1.72% to 1.45% but it is that fact that ROA on conventional banks is greater than Islamic banks. During 2007-08 Meezan face a drop in their ROA, which means there can be impact of the financial crisis while Conventional bank ROA does not show any progress during 2008-09 and declines further. But from the graph it is obvious that despite Conventional bank operating in the country for many decades, Meezan bank after crisis increased ROA from 0.72% in 2008 to 0.82% in 2009. Descriptive statistic for Conventional and Meezan Bank. Type of Banks Mean Standard deviation Conventional 1.28 0.46 Meezan 1.12 0.33 From the descriptive statistic we can say that the average mean of conventional banks tend to be greater than Islamic that is 1.28 and 1.12 respectively while the standard deviation tends to be more in conventional that is 0.46 compared to Meezan bank. To test the significance of mean at 95% level of significance H0: No difference between the mean of both banks. H1: There is difference between both the banks mean. T-statistic 0.62945312 T-critical 1.894578604 At 95% level of significance we find that there is no difference between the mean of both the banks as t -statistic is less then t- critical therefore we accept ho. Time Scale The time scale for this comparative study is three months starting from 1 June 2011 to 30 August 2011.Key Dates for this study is divided into: March à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" May 2011 Review of Literature. 1st June to 10th June Literature Review will be drafted. 11th June to 15th June à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Finalizing the Literature with Supervisor. 16th June to 26th June- Research strategy is developed in consultation. 27th June to 30th June à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Finalizing of the research strategy with Supervisor. 1st July to 10th July- Compiling data for the case study. 11th July to 21st July- Data analysis will take place. 22nd July to 30th July- Changes to data analysis if needed. 1st August-10th August-Conclusion drawn with the supervisor. 11th August to 15th August à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Reviewing the research done so far. 16th August-30th August à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Writing and compiling the research. 1st September- Final submission. Resources In order for this study to take place, the following resources have been used to the best effort. Financial statesman of Conventional Banks of Pakistan and for Meezan bank annual reports are referred from 2005-09. For additional information regarding the Islamic banks and Islamic financial institutions, IBIS portal is used. Bank scope database Internet especially for accessing to the websites of banks used in this research. Journals